southern italy coins italian sicily brindisi naples monete siciliane benevento

AR denier, 17mm, 1.1gr. Obv: +LVDOVVICVS INP, central cross over lines. Rev: +ANGILBERGA NP, central cross with eight rays. Mint is Benevento (It). R2013; MG 1178; Dep 10-F1, 141M (8 examples); MEC 1116; not in Prou. Note the cross potent, similar to Constans II above.

Louis II was descended from Louis the Pious via his first son Lothar. Lothar I's inheritance from his father was the central Carolingian territory, running from the Low Countries through Burgundy down into Italy. When he died, his first son, Lothar, inherited the northern part of his father's lands, to be called Lotharingia, while his other son inherited Italy and ruled as Louis II.

At the time this coin was minted mainland Italy was subject to Arab raids and invasion. Disunity among the Italian princes made effective resistance difficult and the trade relationships coastal cities had with the Arabs made them less than enthusiastic to fight their Arab trading partners. Coastal communities were glad to see the Lombard hold on southern Italy weakened. Even the intervention of Louis II was unable to generate a sustained effort against the Arabs. It was only in the early 10th C that the Arabs were finally driven out of the mainland, although they continued to hold Sicily. In addition to the Arab threat, the Byzantine resurgence in this century caused attention to focus as well on the east coast of Italy, Byzantium's stronghold. Benevento fell to Byzantine forces in 891, who succeeded in holding it only for four years.

Follaro, 11mm, 2.44gr. Obv in Arabic: KING TANCRED. Rev: +ROVERIVS, central REX. Mint is Messina. B 1237; MED14: 447; Spahr 139.

Tancred was a first cousin of William II, nephew (illegitimate) of William I. He is an illegitimate son of Roger (died 1149) who in turn was a son of Roger II. Tancred had two sons who briefly claimed kingship of Sicily (Roger III, 1192 - 93 and William III, 1194) but neither appear to have had coinage. Tancred came to the throne during a conflict over succession, since William II died without an heir. Tancred was supported by a number of barons who recognized that any conflict over the throne would weaken the monarchy and thereby effectively shift power to them. Tancred had allies beyond Sicily in pursuing his claim. The alternate claimant was Henry of Swabia, husband of his aunt Constance. The pope was not enthusiastic about having a German presence both north and south of Rome, given his conflicts with the HRE, and therefore favored Tancred. It is possible that Byzantium also favored Tancred, who was culturally sympathetic to Greek ideas. Tancred died when he was only 39 and the throne passed via his aunt to German control.

Tancred had a hard reign. He found himself the unfortunate host of Richard the Lion Hearted and Philip August who stopped (and looted) in Sicily on their way to the Holy Land during the Third Crusade. This visit was complicated by the fact that Richard's sister, Joanna, was the widow of William II, and Richard claimed that her dowry should be returned since William died. This six month visit contributed to the erosion of Tancred's authority, as did the constant opportunistic pirate raids on the Sicilian coast during his reign. He also lost authority to the Church, which was able to assert ecclesiastical control it had not been able to exercise under earlier rulers.

Denero 13mm, .46gr. Obv: E.NPERATOR, central cross. Rev: C.INPERATRIX, central eagle. Mint is Palermo, Messina or Brindisi. Biaggi (as Brindisi) 433; MEC14:483 (as Palermo or Messina); Spahr 28 as Brindisi or Messina.

Constance was a daughter of Roger II and sister of William I and aunt of William II. She became queen of Sicily in 1195, after the death of Tancred and his sons. She married Henry of Swabia, which took the line out of direct Norman control and passed it to the Germans. Henry was the son of Barbarossa, who died on the Third Crusade. Whereas the Normans had Sicily as their central focus, Henry saw it as an incidental part of of his German territories. He essentially looted Sicily and carried its treasures back to Germany. Henry and Constance died within a year of each other after a short reign and left a very young Frederick II as their heir. He had to rely on the papacy for protection, which turned out to be fairly ineffective, given the limited resources of the papacy and the rapaciousness of the German nobles who had settled in Sicily. Henry's greatest legacy was the introduction of Germanic influence and Germanic nobility into Sicily. Neither seemed to serve Sicily well.

Denero, 15mm, .61gr. Obv: + E INPERATOR, central facing head. Rev: +FREDERIC'REX, central eagle. Mint is Brindisi or Palermo or Messina. Biaggi 436 as Brindisi; MEC14: 489 as Messina or Palermo; Spahr 32 as Messina or Palermo.

Denero 13mm, .52gr. Obv: +CONRADVS, central cross. Rev: JERRL'ET .SICL'., central large R. Mint is Brindisi. Biaggi 475; MEC14: 581; Spahr 153.

Conrad was the son of Frederick II, HRE. In Sicily he was Conrad I, but via other German titles he was known as Conrad IV. His reign was short and ineffective and he never really established control over Sicily. This was a time of turmoil for the island, as it came into political play more dramatically than during Frederick's life. Frederick had been excommunicated and the pope was looking for someone other than a direct Hohenstaufen to take the throne. It was offered to Alphonse of Spain (who declined) and Richard, Earl of Cornwall, who also declined. He responded along the lines, says Benjamin (206) "it was like being offered the moon, provided he could take it from the sky." Charles of Anjou also initially declined and final it was accepted by Edmund, a son of the English king Henry III. However the English never paid the pope nor tried to exercise the claim and the offer was subsequently rescinded. While Conrad's reign was short, he had quite a varied coinage. Here are several more examples.

Denero 13mm, .53gr. +IERVSLEM, central COR. Rev: +ET SICIL 'REX., central cross. Mint is Brindisi. Biaggi 476; MEC14: 557; Spahr 158.

Billon denero, 15mm, .5gr. Obv: +CONRADVS, central cross. Rev: +IERL'ET.SICIL, central REX or RE omega. Mint is Brindisi. Biaggi 1269; MEC14: 579-80; Spahr 156.

Manfred king of Sicily / re di Sicilia (1258-66)

(for a larger version click here)

Denero 13mm, .67gr. Obv: +MANFRIDVS, central eagle. Rev: +.REX.SICILIE, central cross. Mint is Messina or Brindisi. Biaggi 1275; MEC14: 603; Spahr 196 as Messina.

Manfred was an illegitimate son of Frederick II, HRE and brother of Conrad I (died 1254). He was crowned in Palermo in 1258 and was the de facto ruler of Sicily, regardless of the claim of his nephew Conradin. He functioned both as a regent and king. I'm not aware of how the succession was planned. Manfred had support in Sicily and hostility from the pope. The Sicilians saw him as a proponent of Sicilian nationalism and someone familiar with their culture and traditions. He was successful in exerting control over Sicily and extending it to the southern Italian peninsula. By this time the papacy was held by Urban IV, a Frenchman. After the previous failed efforts to get an Englishman on the Sicilian throne, Urban turned again to Charles of Anjou, brother of the king of France. This time around, Charles was more interested in the prospect of his own kingdom and accepted the Urban's offer of the crown. Charles entered Italy with papal support and a large army to pursue his claim. He and Manfred met near Benevento in 1266 and Charles defeated him in combat. Manfred was killed in this battle.

While king, in about 1259, Manfred married his daughter (Constance) to Peter of Aragon, heir to that throne. This marriage opened the door to Sicily for the Aragonese after the revolt of the Sicilian Vespers.

Charles of Anjou/ Charles I of Sicily (1266 - 85)

for a larger image click here

Denier, 19mm. Obv: K COMES PROVINCIE, central monogram. Rev: +FIL_REGIS FRANCIE, cross with two besants, one lis and one ?. R4124, not clearly in Boudeau but obv same as 814, not in Bel.

Charles had territorial interests in both Italy and Provence. He received a papal offer of the crown of Sicily from Urban IV.

Popes propose but others contest. In Italy Charles ran into problems. He manipulated the execution of Conradin, successor to Barbarossa and Frederick II and heir of king Manfred. His death angered the Italians, who held no love for the French. The French imposed strict controls over Italian territories, rankling the local populace. The Sicilians were heavily taxed to support Charles' interests throughout the Med. For example, the Saracen ruler of Tunisian had been paying tribute to Manfred. However, when Manfred died, he stopped the payments. Charles was interested in recapturing this revenue source so he induced his brother, Louis VII of France, to declare a crusade against Tunis. Louis responded and invaded Tunis, but died there just before Charles arrived with his southern forces. Charles proceeded to conquer Tunis and impose an even heavier duty on Tunis.

In response to an instance of French abuse, particularly the supposed abuse by a Frenchman (soldier?) of a Sicilian woman on March 30, 1282, the citizens of Palermo rose against the French, slaughtering thousands. This episode is referred to as the Sicilian Vespers. This revolt in Palermo quickly spread throughout Sicily and ultimately led to an extensive massacre and complete French withdrawal from the island. Charles had to defend his nearby territories on the mainland. Charles made his headquarters in Naples and the island and mainland began to have significantly different experiences. Sicily soon fell under Aragon's control and turned to Spain while the peninsula remained, for the time being, focused on the papacy and north. Sicily lost access to the university in Naples, which weakened the educational base of the island. Sicily did not have its own university until the middle of the 15th century.

This conflict in Sicily was further complicated by the fact that pope Nicholas III sought greater control over Italy than his predecessor had exerted. Nicholas wanted to rule Italy himself. In a negotiation with the Hapsburgs (who were papal allies at the time) and Charles, Charles was to accept a lesser role in Italy in return for the kingdom of Arles and Vienne. (The crown would actually go to his heir - Charles the Lame.) After the episode of the Sicilian Vespers, Charles had an even weaker base in Italy. However, he was prepared to fight to regain it. (This papal/Hapsburg/Anjou negotiation does not appear in any of the Sicilian histories, but is addressed in Cope.)

After Charles' death Sicily decisively goes to Aragon.

Charles, being of royal blood, was entombed in St. Denis outside of Paris, burial place for the French kings. This is the effigy from his tomb.

Pedro and Constanza of Aragon and Sicily (1282-85)

For a larger image click here

Double denero, est: 18mm, .9gr. Obv: +.P.DEI.GRATIA.REX, central eagle facing left. Rev: +ARAGONUM.E.SICILIE, central shield of Aragon. Mint is Messina. MEC14: 765; Spahr II: 27.

Pedro and Constanza of Sicily (1282-85)

for a larger image click here

AR Pierreale, 3.15gr., 25mm. Obv: +:P:DEI:GRA:ARAGON:3:SICIL:REX:, center shield with the arms of Aragon. Rev: +:COSTA:DEI:GRA:ARAGON:3:SICIL:REGIA, center eagle. Mint is Messina. Crus 326; Lhotka 223; Sp 11; Biaggi 1303-4.

After Sicily fell to the rebels, the Sicilians called for aid from the pope, who refused, and from Peter of Aragon. Peter ruled Aragon as Peter III. Aragon had joined with Catalonia and the kingdom controlled Barcelona, one of the great Mediterranean ports. The kingdom had a strong naval capacity and commercial interests throughout the area. When Peter married Constance, there was the expectation that there would be good relations between Sicily and Aragon, but not that it would lead to Aragonese control of Sicily. However, both Manfred's and Conradin's death left Constance a strong claimant to the throne, and through her, Peter.

Peter responded to the call of the Sicilians and arrived with an army in August 1282. He was recognized as king by the parliament in Palermo and crowned. The Sicilians were very interested in succession and he said he would be succeeded by his second son James (with the expectation that son #1 Alphonso would become king of Aragon). The intention was to split the rule of Sicily from that of Aragon so the Sicilians had an in country ruler whose central focus was the island. When Peter became king of Sicily, he shortly thereafter returned to Spain and left Constance in Sicily as regent.

This opened a period of warfare that lasted the better part of a century over the control of Sicily. Astarita (55) characterized the situation thus: "Sicily and the Italian south were central to the network of connections that shaped the Mediterranean, from Iberia to the Holy Land in late medieval times. The Sicilian revolt and ensuing war ... therefore turned into the most significant episode in a protracted struggle between French, Iberian, Italian, papal, German and Byzantine interests for the control of the Mediterranean." This is sometimes referred to as the 70 years war. Basically, this conflict did not serve Sicilian interests and the island suffered as a result.

James I (Giacomo) (1285 - 96)

For a larger image click here

Denari, 16mm., .52gr. Obv: +.IAC.DEI.GRA, crowned head left. Rev: +REX.SICILIE, cross with four besants. Mint is Messina. B 1309; MEC 770v.

In terms of Sicilian succession, James was expected to become ruler of Sicily while his older brother became king of Aragon. When his father died in 1285 (in the same year as Charles I of Anjou), James did in fact become king of Sicily, as planned. However, his brother Alphonso, who became king of Aragon on the death of Peter III, died young and James also succeeded him as king of Aragon. The agreement with the Parliament in Sicily is that the crowns would be split, but James was reluctant to give up Sicily. While he held on to the titular title, he was essentially usurped by his younger brother who lived in Sicily and was chosen by the local nobility to become king.

This led to an interesting internecine conflict. Early in the 14th century there was a serious effort to resolve the question of the control of Sicily. Naturally the Angevins, in the person of Charles II, were interested in reasserting control over the island. The pope shared this interest, as did James I of Aragon, who was under pressure from the French. The fly in the ointment was Frederick III, James' younger brother, who grew up in Sicily and was elected king of Sicily in 1296, after James succeeded to the throne of Aragon.

Frederick III (1296-1337)

Since Frederick did not come to the throne legitimately, he had a less secure relationship with his nobles. During his reign, central authority continued to weaken. He faced an invasion by his brother James who sought to regain control of Sicily, as well as facing threats from Charles II and the papacy who wanted to restore the island to Angevin control. As the result of a treaty in 1302 Frederick hung on to his throne, with the stipulation that it would revert to the Angevins on his death. He adopted the title 'king of Trinacria,' an earlier name for the island. He also married Charles II's daughter, setting up the planned return of Sicily to the house of Anjou. His heirs were not willing to honor this agreement. The temporary peace of 1302 gave way to sporadic fighting between 1312 and 1372. long after Frederick's death. This conflict drained Sicily financially and continued to weakened central authority, as the nobility asserted a growing independence and resistance to the taxation and feudal obligation to provide military support to the king. By the same token, southern Italy in general languished during this time as they too were drained financially by the continuing conflict with Sicily.

Peter II (1337-42)

Son of Frederick.

Lodovico (1342 - 1355)

For a larger image click here

AR Pierreale 23mm., 3.22gr. Obv: +LODOUICUS:FELIX, central eagle with treasure. The meaning of 'FELIX' is unclear (MEC 14 p269). Rev: +DEI:GRA:REX:SICILIE, shield between two annulets. Mint is Messina. Biaggi 1361; MEC 784; Crusafont (82) 325c.

Son of Peter II. The Black Death entered Europe via Messina in 1347 and killed many on the island. There are apparently no records of the exact count. Across Europe, the fatality rate was 33% - 40%. Astarta (320) gives a population estimate for Sicily of 700,000 in 1277 and 300,000 in 1375.

Federico IV: il Semplico (1355-77)

for a larger image click here

AR Pierreale 24mm, 3.26gr. Obv: +FRIDERICVS:DEI:GRA:REX.SICILIE, central eagle. Rev: +AC AThENAR:2:NEOPATRIE:DVX, central shield of Aragon. Mint is Messina. Biaggi 1319; MEC14:790; Spahr II 51.

The long term struggle between Sicily and Naples finally came to an end in 1372. Naples recognized Sicilian independence, Frederick agreed to recognize the pope as feudal overload and to accept the title of king of Trinacria. All sides were spent.

Unfortunately, Sicily's hopes for a better, or at least independent, future were not realized. Frederick IV had no male heir and his daughter ended up marrying Martin, grandson of Peter IV of Aragon. This marriage came about because she was kidnapped from Sicily and taken to Spain for a forced marriage. Martin led an invasion of Sicily to seize his new throne. However, he was really under the control of his father, also named Martin, king of Aragon (1395-1410). When Martin of Sicily died in 1409, Sicily passed to his father Martin of Aragon and effectively became a province of Aragon and ceased to be an independent kingdom.

Martin I (1402-1409)

for a larger image click here

AR Pierreale, 25mm., 3.26gr. Obv: +MARTIN:D:GRA REX:SICILI, central eagle. Rev: +AC:ATHENAR:NEOP A:DU, central crowned shield. Mint is Messina. B 1341v; MEC 815v (this coin's obverse ends 'ILI,' not 'ILIE.'); Crusafont (82) 347A.

for a larger image click here

BL Denero, 15mm, .52gr. Obv: +MARTIN.D GR, central eagle. Rev: +REX.SICILIE, shield of Aragon between annulets. Mint is Messina. B 1343; MEC 824; Spahr 2: 54-58.

Federico died without a male heir so his infant daughter Maria of Aragon inherited. She held the title of Sicily alone between 1377 and 1392. During this time royal authority continued to erode and Sicily was essentially ruled by four families, each of whom had control over a section of the island. A major governance issue was who would Maria marry. Internal disagreements among the four families meant that the best possibility was an off islander. The crown was eventually offered to Martin of Aragon, nephew of the king John of Aragon. Martin ruled Sicily with his father, also a Martin, from their headquarters in Palermo.

Royal authority was limited due to lack of resources so the control of the leaders of the four families was only modestly impacted. In the face of papal weakness, Martin I (the son) declared himself papal legate, reasserting a privilege the Norman rulers claimed. John of Aragon died in 1395 and Martin I's father left Sicily to take throne of Aragon, leaving Sicily to his son. When Maria died in 1402 Martin continued to rule, with limited success, alone. And when he died in 1409 he left Sicily to his father, king of Aragon who also then became Martin II of Sicily. This made for the unusual numbering where the father was Martin II and the son Martin I. Martin II died in 1410 and Sicily essentially became a department of Aragon, losing whatever political independence it had enjoyed.

Denero gherardino, 13mm, .52gr. Obv: +ROBERTV.DEI.GRA, central four lis-like elements. Rev: +IERL.ET.SICIL'.REX, central cross. Mint is Naples. Biaggi 1637, MEC 14:719; Spahr-.

Robert was son of Charles II, king of Naples, and Beatrice, countess de Provence. His grandfather was Charles I of Provence and king of Sicily and his great grandfather was Louis VIII. Robert inherited the title of king of Naples from his father. Other titles include count of Provence, pretender to the throne of Sicily and titular king of Jerusalem. Robert established Naples as a major Renaissance city and was known as ‘le Sage' for the quality of his reign.

Billon denero, 15mm, 72g. Obv: +ALFONS:D:GR, central eagle. Rev: REX SICILI, cross on shield of arms. Mint is Messina. Biaggi 1349; MEC14: 843; Spahr-..

AR denero, 15mm, .47gr. Obv: +DE ANCONA. central cross. Rev: +.PP.S.QVI.R.I.A, central CVS. Mint is Ancona. Biaggi 33.

Benjamin, S., Sicily: Three Thousand Years of Human History, Steerforth Press, N.H., 2006

Finley, M.I., Smith, D.M. and Dugan, C., A History of Sicily, Viking, N.Y., 1987

Smith, D.M., A History of Sicily: Medieval Sicily (800 - 1713), The Viking Press, N.Y., 1968

Takayama, H., The Administration of the Norman Kingdom of Sicily, EJ Brill, N.Y., 1993